What is Biotechnology

Posted on February 24, 2010 | What at mybiginfo.com | What is Biotechnology | | View all What | |

Biotechnology is technology based on biology, agriculture, food science, and medicine. Modern use of the term refers to genetic engineering as well as cell- and tissue culture technologies. However, the concept encompasses a wider range and history of procedures for modifying living organisms according to human purposes, going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants and “improvements” to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization. By comparison to biotechnology, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field with its emphasis more on mechanical and higher systems approaches to interfacing with and exploiting living things.

Applications

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

Medicine:
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as:

Pharmacogenomics:
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs. It is a coined word derived from the words “pharmacology” and “genomics”. It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup.

Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:

1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.
2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.
3. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.
4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once.

Genetic testing:
Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences.

There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design short pieces of DNA (“probes”) whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual’s genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient’s gene to disease in healthy individuals or their progeny.

Genetic testing is now used for:

Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may present different risks to different people and populations.

Gene therapy:
Gene therapy using an Adenovirus vector. A new gene is inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified DNA into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional protein.

Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be used to target somatic (i.e., body) or gametes (i.e., egg and sperm) cells. In somatic gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is changed, but this change is not passed along to the next generation. In contrast, in germline gene therapy, the egg and sperm cells of the parents are changed for the purpose of passing on the changes to their offspring.

There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:

1. Ex vivo, which means “outside the body” – Cells from the patient’s blood or bone marrow are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to a virus carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein.
2. In vivo, which means “inside the body” – No cells are removed from the patient’s body. Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient’s body.

As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500 patients have been identified worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%. These trials focus on various types of cancer, although other multigenic diseases are being studied as well. Recently, two children born with severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (“SCID”) were reported to have been cured after being given genetically engineered cells.

Agriculture:

Crop yield:
Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes(Smartstax from Monsanto in collaboration with Dow AgroSciences will use 8, starting in 2010) may be transferred to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new character that would increase its yield.However, while increases in crop yield are the most obvious applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult one. Current genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e.g., enhanced growth) are controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect on the overall yield.There is, therefore, much scientific work to be done in this area.

Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses:
Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses may be developed. For example, drought and excessively salty soil are two important limiting factors in crop productivity. Biotechnologists are studying plants that can cope with these extreme conditions in the hope of finding the genes that enable them to do so and eventually transferring these genes to the more desirable crops. One of the latest developments is the identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from Arabidopsis thaliana, a tiny weed that is often used for plant research because it is very easy to grow and its genetic code is well mapped out. When this gene was inserted into tomato and tobacco cells (see RNA interference), the cells were able to withstand environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold and heat, far more than ordinary cells. If these preliminary results prove successful in larger trials, then At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can better withstand harsh environments.Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that are resistant to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). In Africa, this virus destroys majority of the rice crops and makes the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections.

Increased nutritional qualities:
Proteins in foods may be modified to increase their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and cereals may be transformed to provide the amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet.A good example is the work of Professors Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer on the so-called Golden rice.

Improved taste, texture or appearance of food:
Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the plant and then be transported to the consumer with a still reasonable shelf life. This alters the taste, texture and appearance of the fruit. More importantly, it could expand the market for farmers in developing countries due to the reduction in spoilage. However, there is sometimes a lack of understanding by researchers in developed countries about the actual needs of prospective beneficiaries in developing countries. For example, engineering soybeans to resist spoilage makes them less suitable for producing tempeh which is a significant source of protein that depends on fermentation. The use of modified soybeans results in a lumpy texture that is less palatable and less convenient when cooking.

The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was transformed to delay its ripening.Researchers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Vietnam are currently working on delayed-ripening papaya in collaboration with the University of Nottingham and Zeneca.

Biotechnology in cheese production:enzymes produced by micro-organisms provide an alternative to animal rennet – a cheese coagulant – and an alternative supply for cheese makers. This also eliminates possible public concerns with animal-derived material, although there are currently no plans to develop synthetic milk, thus making this argument less compelling. Enzymes offer an animal-friendly alternative to animal rennet. While providing comparable quality, they are theoretically also less expensive.

About 85 million tons of wheat flour is used every year to bake bread.By adding an enzyme called maltogenic amylase to the flour, bread stays fresher longer. Assuming that 10–15% of bread is thrown away as stale, if it could be made to stay fresh another 5–7 days then perhaps 2 million tons of flour per year would be saved. Other enzymes can cause bread to expand to make a lighter loaf, or alter the loaf in a range of ways.

Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals:
Most of the current commercial applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the dependence of farmers on agrochemicals. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil bacterium that produces a protein with insecticidal qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to produce an insecticidal spray from these bacteria. In this form, the Bt toxin occurs as an inactive protoxin, which requires digestion by an insect to be effective. There are several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target insects. Crop plants have now been engineered to contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now commercially available in a number of countries to control corn borer (a lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise controlled by spraying (a more difficult process).

Crops have also been genetically engineered to acquire tolerance to broad-spectrum herbicide. The lack of herbicides with broad-spectrum activity and no crop injury was a consistent limitation in crop weed management. Multiple applications of numerous herbicides were routinely used to control a wide range of weed species detrimental to agronomic crops. Weed management tended to rely on preemergence—that is, herbicide applications were sprayed in response to expected weed infestations rather than in response to actual weeds present. Mechanical cultivation and hand weeding were often necessary to control weeds not controlled by herbicide applications. The introduction of herbicide-tolerant crops has the potential of reducing the number of herbicide active ingredients used for weed management, reducing the number of herbicide applications made during a season, and increasing yield due to improved weed management and less crop injury. Transgenic crops that express tolerance to glyphosate, glufosinate and bromoxynil have been developed. These herbicides can now be sprayed on transgenic crops without inflicting damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds.
From 1996 to 2001, herbicide tolerance was the most dominant trait introduced to commercially available transgenic crops, followed by insect resistance. In 2001, herbicide tolerance deployed in soybean, corn and cotton accounted for 77% of the 626,000 square kilometres planted to transgenic crops; Bt crops accounted for 15%; and “stacked genes” for herbicide tolerance and insect resistance used in both cotton and corn accounted for 8%.

Production of novel substances in crop plants:
Biotechnology is being applied for novel uses other than food. For example, oilseed can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals. Potatoes, tomatoes, ricererere tobacco, lettuce, safflowers, and other plants have been genetically-engineered to produce insulin and certain vaccines. If future clinical trials prove successful, the advantages of edible vaccines would be enormous, especially for developing countries. The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. Homegrown vaccines would also avoid logistical and economic problems posed by having to transport traditional preparations over long distances and keeping them cold while in transit. And since they are edible, they will not need syringes, which are not only an additional expense in the traditional vaccine preparations but also a source of infections if contaminated.[29] In the case of insulin grown in transgenic plants, it is well-established that the gastrointestinal system breaks the protein down therefore this could not currently be administered as an edible protein. However, it might be produced at significantly lower cost than insulin produced in costly, bioreactors. For example, Calgary, Canada-based SemBioSys Genetics, Inc. reports that its safflower-produced insulin will reduce unit costs by over 25% or more and approximates a reduction in the capital costs associated with building a commercial-scale insulin manufacturing facility of over $100 million, compared to traditional biomanufacturing facilities.

Industry Facts

Historical Events in Biotechnology

BC

1750The Sumerians brew beer.

500 The Chinese use moldy soybean curds as an antibiotic to treat boils.

250 The Greeks practice crop rotation to maximize soil fertility.

100 Powdered chrysanthemum is used in China as an insecticide.

AD: Before the 20th Century

1590 The microscope is invented by Janssen.

1663 Cells are first described by Hooke.

1675 Leeuwenhoek discovers protozoa and bacteria.

1797 Jenner inoculates a child with a viral vaccine to protect him from smallpox.

1802 The word “biology” first appears.

1824 Dutrochet discovers that tissue is composed of living cells.

1830 Proteins are discovered.

1833 The cell nucleus is discovered.
The first enzymes are isolated.

1855 The Escherichia coli bacterium is discovered. It later becomes a major research, development, and production tool for biotechnology.

Pasteur begins working with yeast, eventually proving they are living organisms.

1863 Mendel, in his study of peas, discovers that traits were transmitted from parents to progeny by discrete, independent units, later called genes. His observations lay the groundwork for the field of genetics.

1869 Miescher discovers DNA in the sperm of trout.

1877 A technique for staining and identifying bacteria is developed by Koch.

1878 The first centrifuge is developed by Laval.

The term “microbe” is first used.

1879 Flemming discovers chromatin, the rod-like structures inside the cell nucleus that later come to be called “chromosomes.”

1883 The first rabies vaccine is developed.

1888 The chromosome is discovered by Waldyer.

AD: First Half of the 20th Century

1902 The term “immunology” first appears.

1906 The term “genetics” is introduced.

1907 The first in vivo culture of animal cells is reported.

1909 Genes are linked with hereditary disorders.

1911 The first cancer-causing virus is discovered by Rous.

1914 Bacteria are used to treat sewage for the first time in Manchester, England.

1915 Phages, or bacterial viruses, are discovered.

1919 The word “biotechnology” is first used by a Hungarian agricultural engineer.

1920 The human growth hormone is discovered by Evans and Long.

1927 Muller discovers that X-rays cause mutation.

1928 Fleming discovers penicillin, the first antibiotic.

1938 The term “molecular biology” is coined.

1941 The term “genetic engineering” is first used by a Danish microbiologist.

1942 The electron microscope is used to identify and characterize a bacteriophage- a virus that infects bacteria.

1943 Avery demonstrates that DNA is the “transforming factor” and is the material of genes.

1944 DNA is shown to be the material substance of the gene.

1949 Pauling shows that sickle cell anemia is a “molecular disease” resulting from a mutation.

1950 to 1960

1951 McClintock discovers transposable elements, or “jumping genes,” in corn.

1953 Watson and Crick reveal the three-dimensional structure of DNA.

1954 Cell-culturing techniques are developed.

1955 An enzyme involved in the synthesis of a nucleic acid is isolated for the first time.

1956 The fermentation process is perfected in Japan.

Kornberg discovers the enzyme DNA polymerase I, leading to an understanding of how DNA is replicated.

1957 Sickle cell anemia is shown to occur due to a change of a single amino acid.

1960 Exploiting base pairing, hybrid DNA-RNA molecules are created.

Messenger RNA is discovered.

1961 The genetic code is understood for the first time.

1964 The existence of reverse transcriptase (RT) is predicted.

1967 The first automatic protein sequencer is perfected.

1969 An enzyme is synthesized in vitro for the first time.

1970s

1970 Specific restriction nucleases are identified, opening the way for gene cloning.

RT is discovered independently in murine and avian retroviruses.

1971 RT is shown to have ribonuclease H (Rnase H) activity.

1972 The DNA composition of humans is discovered to be 99% similar to that of chimpanzees and gorillas.

Purified RT is first used to synthesize cDNA from purified mRNA in vitro.

1973 Cohen and Boyer perform the first successful recombinant DNA experiment, using bacterial genes.

1974 The National Institute of Health forms a Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee to oversee recombinant genetic research.

1975 Colony hybridization and Southern blotting are developed for detecting specific DNA sequences.

The first monoclonal antibodies are produced.

1976 The tools of recombinant DNA are first applied to a human inherited disorder.

Molecular hybridization is used for the prenatal diagnosis of alpha thalassemia.

Yeast genes are expressed in E. coli bacteria.

1977 Genetically engineered bacteria are used to synthesize human growth protein.

1978 North Carolina scientists Hutchinson and Edgell show it is possible to introduce specific mutations at specific sites in a DNA molecule.

1979 The first monoclonal antibodies are produced.

1980s

1980 The U.S. Supreme Court, in the landmark case Diamond v. Chakrabarty, approves the principle of patenting genetically engineered life forms.

The U.S. patent for gene cloning is awarded to Cohen and Boyer.

1981 The North Carolina Biotechnology Center is created by the state’s General Assembly as the nation’s first state-sponsored initiative to develop biotechnology. Thirty-five other states follow with biotechnology centers of various kinds.

The first gene-synthesizing machines are developed.

The first genetically engineered plant is reported.

Mice are successfully cloned.

1982 Humulin, Genentech’s human insulin drug produced by genetically engineered bacteria for the treatment of diabetes, is the first biotech drug to be approved by the Food and Drug Administration.

1983 The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique is conceived. PCR, which uses heat and enzymes to make unlimited copies of genes and gene fragments, later becomes a major tool in biotech research and product development worldwide.

The first genetic transformation of plant cells by TI plasmids is performed.

The first artificial chromosome is synthesized.

The first genetic markers for specific inherited diseases are found.

Efficient methods are developed to synthesize double-stranded DNA from first-strand cDNA involving minimal loss of sequence information.

1984 The DNA fingerprinting technique is developed.

The first genetically engineered vaccine is developed.

Chiron clones and sequences the entire genome of the HIV virus.

1985 Fully active murine RT is cloned and overexpressed in E. coli.

1986 The first field tests of genetically engineered plants (tobacco) are conducted.

Ortho Biotech’s Orthoclone OKT3, used to fight kidney transplant rejection, is approved as the first monoclonal antibody treatment.

The first biotech-derived interferon drugs for the treatment of cancer, Biogen’s Intron A and Genentech’s Roferon A, are approved by the FDA. In 1988, the drugs are used to treat Kaposi’s sarcoma, a complication of AIDS.

The first genetically engineered human vaccine, Chiron’s Recombivax HB, is approved for the prevention of hepatitis B.

1987 Humatrope is developed for treating human growth hormone deficiency.

Advanced Genetic Sciences’ Frostban, a genetically altered bacterium that inhibits frost formation on crop plants, is field tested on strawberry and potato plants in California, the first authorized outdoor tests of an engineered bacterium.

Genentech’s tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), sold as Activase, is approved as a treatment for heart attacks.

Reverse transcription and PCR are combined to amplify mRNA sequences.

Cloned murine RT is engineered to maintain polymerase and eliminate Rnase H activity.

1988 Congress funds the Human Genome Project, a massive effort to map and sequence the human genetic code as well as the genomes of other species.

1989 Amgen’s Epogen is approved for the treatment of renal disease anemia.

Microorganisms are used to clean up the Exxon Valdez oil spill.
The gene responsible for cystic fibrosis is discovered.

1990s

1990 The first federally approved gene therapy treatment is performed successfully on a 4-yearold girl suffering from an immune disorder.

1991 Amgen develops Neupogen, the first of a new class of drugs called colony stimulating factors, for the treatment of low white blood cells in chemotherapy patients.

Immunex’s Leukine, used to replenish white blood counts after bone marrow transplants, is approved.

Genzyme’s Ceredase is approved for the treatment of Gaucher’s disease.

1992 The three-dimensional structure of HIV RT is elucidated.
Recombinate, developed by Genetics Institute and used in the treatment of hemophilia A, becomes the first genetically engineered blood clotting factor approved in the U.S. Chiron’s Proleukin is approved for the treatment of renal cell cancer.

1993 Chiron’s Betaseron is approved as the first treatment for multiple sclerosis in 20 years.

The FDA declares that genetically engineered foods are “not inherently dangerous” and do not require special regulation.

The Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) is created by merging two smaller trade associations.

1994 Genentech’s Nutropin is approved for the treatment of growth hormone deficiency.

The first breast cancer gene is discovered.

Calgene’s Flavr Savr tomato, engineered to resist rotting, is approved for sale.

1995 The first baboon-to-human bone marrow transplant is performed on an AIDS patient.

The first full gene sequence of a living organism other than a virus is completed for the bacterium Hemophilus influenzae.

The three-dimensional structure of a catalytically active fragment of murine RT is elucidated.

1996 Biogen’s Avonex is approved for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. The company builds a $50 million plant in Research Triangle Park, N.C., to manufacture the recombinant interferon drug.
Scottish scientists clone identical lambs from early embryonic sheep.

1997 Scottish scientists report cloning a sheep, using DNA from adult sheep cells.
A group of Oregon researchers claims to have cloned two Rhesus monkeys.
A new DNA technique combines PCR, DNA chips, and a computer program, providing a new tool in the search for disease-causing genes.

1998 University of Hawaii scientists clone three generations of mice from nuclei of adult ovarian cumulus cells.
Human skin is produced in vitro.
Embryonic stem cells are used to regenerate tissue and create disorders mimicking diseases.
The first complete animal genome for the elegans worm is sequenced.
A rough draft of the human genome map is produced, showing the locations of more than 30,000 genes.
Cloned vain RT with fully active polymerase and minimized Rnase H activity is engineered.
The Biotechnology Institute is founded by BIO as an independent national, 501(c)(3) education organization with an independent Board of Trustees.

1999 The complete genetic code of the human chromosome is first deciphered.
The rising tide of public opinion in Europe brings biotech food into the spotlight.

2000 and Beyond

2000 A rough draft of the human genome is completed by Celera Genomics and the Human Genome Project.
Pigs are the next animal cloned by researchers, hopefully to help produce organs for human transplant.
“Golden Rice,” modified to make vitamin A, promises to help third-world countries alleviate blindness.
The 2.18 million base pairs of the commonest cause of bacterial meningitis, Neisseria meningitidis, are identified.

2001 The sequence of the human genome is published in Science and Nature, making it possible for researchers all over the world to begin developing treatments.

2002 Scientists complete the draft sequence of the most important pathogen of rice, a fungus that destroys enough rice to feed 60 million people annually. By combining an understanding of the genomes of the fungus and rice, scientists will elucidate the molecular basis of the interactions between the plant and pathogen.

2003 Dolly, the cloned sheep that made headlines in 1997, is euthanized after developing progressive lung disease. Dolly was the first successful clone of a mammal.

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